There’s a quiet absurdity many of us carry daily: a sense that something about our work feels hollow, yet we push through it as if it’s the only way to belong. In Bullshit Jobs, David Graeber confronts this head-on, revealing a phenomenon we rarely admit exists: jobs that seem to serve no meaningful purpose but have become central to our lives and identities.

Graeber goes beyond pointing fingers at corporate culture or inefficient systems. He uses this concept of “bullshit jobs” to uncover deeper cracks in society. Somewhere along the way, we stopped valuing work for its contribution and started treating it as a badge of morality. If you’re not slogging away at a job you dislike, you’re undeserving of love, care, or community. It’s a belief so ingrained in us that we’ve accepted it, even as it feels like self-imposed servitude.

What makes this reality even darker, as Graeber points out, is how it breeds resentment. Instead of questioning the system, many direct their anger at those who’ve escaped it. Suspicion and bitterness have become the threads holding us together, and that’s a sobering thought.

This book does not provide a step-by-step guide to fixing society. Instead, his aim is to challenge readers to reimagine what a truly free society could look like. This book serves as the starting point for a much-needed conversation—one we often avoid.

By the time you finish reading Bullshit Jobs, you might not have all the answers (in fact, you’ll likely have even more questions), but you’ll undoubtedly see the problem from a completely new perspective.

Summary

Why Keynes’s Vision of a 15-Hour Work Week Never Happened

In 1930, the renowned economist John Maynard Keynes boldly predicted that by the end of the 20th century, technological progress would allow countries like Great Britain and the US to embrace a 15-hour work week. However, instead of working less, technology has been harnessed to make us work even more. To sustain this shift, many jobs have been created that seem, frankly, pointless.

So, what went wrong with Keynes’s utopian vision?

The common explanation today is consumerism. Keynes underestimated how much people would prioritize acquiring more “toys and pleasures” over having fewer work hours. But this explanation only scratches the surface. The real reasons are rooted in moral and political motives.

The ruling class has learned that a population with ample free time can pose a threat to the established order. A happy, well-rested society is one that might question authority or demand change. At the same time, the notion that work is an inherent moral good has taken hold. It’s a convenient narrative: those who refuse to subject themselves to grueling work schedules are often seen as undeserving of comfort or respect. This belief has proven incredibly useful in maintaining a status quo where endless work is glorified, even when it serves no meaningful purpose.

By focusing on these moral and political dynamics, we can better understand why Keynes’s dream remains out of reach.

The Rise of “Bullshit Jobs”

Imagine a world where pointless jobs are created not out of necessity, but simply to keep people working. It sounds counterintuitive, especially under capitalism, which prides itself on efficiency and innovation. Yet, here lies a peculiar paradox: capitalism, much like the old socialist systems it critiques, has become a master at manufacturing meaningless work.

In the Soviet Union, for instance, creating jobs was seen as a sacred duty to ensure full employment. But under capitalism, where efficiency is supposedly king, the proliferation of “bullshit jobs” defies logic. These roles are so pointless, unnecessary, or even harmful that the very people doing them often struggle to justify their existence.

What makes these jobs particularly insidious is the pretense they demand. Employees in such roles must act as though their work is meaningful, despite knowing deep down that it’s not. These aren’t just useless or harmful jobs—they often involve a layer of deception, requiring workers to participate in a charade of productivity.

This phenomenon raises uncomfortable questions about the true purpose of work in modern society. Why create jobs that offer no value, and why perpetuate a system where pretense is rewarded? The answers may lie in the cultural and political forces that prioritize control and appearances over genuine utility.

The Difference Between “Bullshit Jobs” and “Shit Jobs”

Not all terrible jobs are created equal. There’s an important distinction between “bullshit jobs” and “shit jobs”—both frustrating in their own way, but for completely different reasons.

Bullshit jobs are often white-collar, salaried positions that pay well and come with excellent working conditions. They’re surrounded by prestige and honor, and their holders are respected as high achievers. Yet, beneath the surface, many of these workers know the truth: their roles contribute nothing of real value. The work is pointless, but they must pretend otherwise to maintain the facade.

On the other hand, shit jobs are the polar opposite. These roles, usually blue-collar and paid by the hour, involve hard work that is undeniably necessary and beneficial to society. Think of roles in sanitation, caregiving, or food service. Yet, despite their importance, these workers are often treated poorly, paid badly, and subjected to indignities. Ironically, they’re often held in low esteem precisely because their work is seen as “menial,” even though society depends on them.

The contrast is striking: while bullshit jobs offer comfort and respect without meaning, shit jobs provide meaning but come with harsh conditions and little respect.

In some cases, these categories can overlap—imagine someone tasked with endlessly performing a pointless chore. It’s the worst of both worlds: a job that feels meaningless and is treated as such. This juxtaposition sheds light on how the modern economy distributes work, rewards, and dignity in deeply irrational ways.

The 5 Types of “Bullshit Jobs”

Not all meaningless jobs are created equal—bullshit jobs come in various forms, each uniquely absurd. Here’s a breakdown of the five major types:

1. Flunkies

These roles exist solely to make someone else look or feel important. Think of them as modern-day “feudal retainers,” whose presence is more about appearances than utility. Historical examples include footmen who ran alongside carriages, checking for road bumps.

Modern flunkies include doormen, receptionists, or front-desk staff in places that clearly don’t need them. Why pay someone to sit at a desk doing nothing? Because without them, the organization would seem unprofessional or unserious. Flunkies serve as badges of importance or seriousness rather than fulfilling a practical need.

2. Goons

Goons are the enforcers of the bullshit job world, with a role that is inherently aggressive but exists only because others employ similar people.

Examples include national armed forces (countries maintain armies because other nations do), telemarketers, and corporate lawyers. These jobs are often seen as socially harmful and manipulative. Even those who hold these roles frequently feel their work lacks value and shouldn’t exist, which makes their jobs particularly demoralizing.

3. Duct Tapers

These employees exist because of organizational flaws. Their job is to fix problems that shouldn’t have arisen in the first place, often due to sloppy management or systemic inefficiencies.

For example, a worker tasked with undoing the mistakes of an incompetent boss is a duct taper. Historically, duct taping has often fallen to women performing emotional labor—soothing egos, calming nerves, and negotiating fixes for the messes created by oblivious men. Duct tapers are painfully aware of their job’s futility and are often quietly resentful of their situation.

4. Box Tickers

These roles exist primarily to allow organizations to appear as though they are achieving something they’re not. The focus is on creating the illusion of progress, without any real impact. Box tickers fulfill bureaucratic requirements or perform symbolic tasks, all to maintain appearances.

5. Taskmasters

Taskmasters come in two varieties:

• Type 1: Those whose only job is to assign work to others. These roles are unnecessary if their subordinates can manage themselves, making them useless superiors—the opposite of flunkies.
• Type 2: More harmful, this type actively creates meaningless tasks for others or even invents entirely new bullshit jobs. They supervise and perpetuate unnecessary work, causing frustration and inefficiency.

Complex Multiform Bullshit Jobs

Some roles blur the lines between categories, making it hard to determine where they fit. These hybrid positions often involve elements of multiple bullshit job types, adding to their complexity and absurdity.

Understanding these categories sheds light on how modern work systems prioritize appearances, inefficiency, and control over meaningful contributions. It’s a sobering look at the disconnect between what we do and what truly matters.

The Flawed Assumptions About Work and Human Nature

Much of our conversation about work hinges on a simple assumption: people need to be forced to work. Economists’ models often depict humans as inherently lazy, claiming that without compulsion or the fear of poverty, individuals would avoid work altogether. This belief fuels policies that ensure welfare or aid is delivered in the most demeaning and burdensome ways possible, under the guise of “preventing dependence.”

The underlying assumption is clear: if given the chance to “freeload,” humans would jump at it. But is this really true?

There’s ample evidence that challenges this notion. Take, for instance, working-class individuals who win multimillion-dollar lotteries. Contrary to expectations, many continue working, and those who quit often express regret later. Even in prisons, where inmates could potentially pass the time idly, most find the idea of doing nothing unbearable.

These examples suggest that humans crave purpose and engagement. The assumption that people will naturally avoid work ignores a deeper truth: meaningful activity, not mere survival, is what motivates us. It’s a perspective that turns traditional ideas about labor and incentives on their head, inviting us to rethink the nature of work and its role in our lives.

The Modern Morality of “Time Belongs to Your Employer”

In today’s work culture, there’s a deeply ingrained belief: if you’re on the clock, your time isn’t your own. Any moment not spent working is seen not just as idleness, but as theft. This notion—that one person’s time can belong to someone else—is surprisingly peculiar when you think about it. How did we get here, where it’s perfectly normal for employers to expect their workers to be productive every second of “their” time?

The answer lies in a fundamental shift in how we view time itself. Historically, time was something people simply passed. But with the rise of capitalism and industrialization, time became money. This shift transformed how we talk about and perceive time: suddenly, it could be “spent,” “saved,” “lost,” or even “wasted.” The idea of “racing against time” or “killing time” became commonplace.

Once time was commodified, it became easier to justify the idea that employers could “own” the hours of their employees. This shift wasn’t just practical; it was moral. A boss demanding every moment of “his” time reflects a worldview where productivity is prized above all else, and idleness is vilified as a moral failing.

This transformation reveals how deeply economic systems shape not just our work lives, but our very sense of what time means—and who it belongs to.

The Surprising Appeal of Bullshit Jobs

Despite the frustration many feel in meaningless roles, there’s a small but happy minority who genuinely enjoy their bullshit jobs. Why? The reasons often have little to do with the work itself and more to do with the context around it.

For some, the escape that work provides is priceless. Family or domestic life can be so stressful that the office becomes a haven, a place where they can temporarily step away from personal responsibilities. Others find joy in the workplace through their relationships with coworkers. Gossip, camaraderie, and the shared experience of office life can bring a sense of connection and entertainment that outweighs the job’s lack of purpose.

This dynamic is especially common in large cities, where many middle-class workers have limited social lives outside of their jobs. With so much time spent at work, the office often replaces the sense of community once found in villages, small towns, or close-knit neighborhoods. Day-to-day drama, personal intrigue, and gossip become a source of meaning and entertainment, making even a pointless job feel worthwhile on a social level.

In this way, the appeal of bullshit jobs is less about the work itself and more about the human need for connection and a sense of belonging.

The Hidden Toll of Bullshit Jobs

The worst thing about a bullshit job isn’t the monotony or the wasted time—it’s the gnawing knowledge that the work itself is meaningless. As humans, much of our sense of identity comes from the satisfaction of making a tangible impact on the world. When that impact is missing, it can undermine our sense of purpose and self-worth.

But the psychological toll is just the beginning. Bullshit jobs can also lead to significant stress, especially when they involve actively working on tasks that everyone knows—but no one admits—are pointless. This unspoken tension creates a toxic work environment, where frustration often manifests in arbitrary conflicts and lashing out.

The stress doesn’t stay confined to the workplace. Many people in bullshit jobs experience physical health issues, from chronic headaches to more serious stress-related ailments. The combination of purposeless work and a tense atmosphere takes a real toll on well-being, making these jobs harmful not just to the soul, but to the body as well.

Bullshit jobs may seem harmless on the surface, but their deeper effects on identity, mental health, and physical health reveal just how damaging they can be.

The Paradox of Bullshit Jobs: Necessary Yet Pointless

One of the most frustrating dilemmas surrounding bullshit jobs is their dual nature. On one hand, the work itself might be entirely unnecessary—a meaningless exercise in ticking boxes or solving problems that shouldn’t even exist. But on the other hand, these jobs provide people with the means to feed their families and sustain their lives.

This raises a troubling question: what kind of economic system forces individuals to dedicate most of their waking hours to pointless tasks just to survive? Yet, there’s a flipside to consider. If the same system creates these jobs and simultaneously enables people to care for their families, can the work truly be as useless as it seems?

This paradox reflects the deeper contradictions of our economic structures. Bullshit jobs may be pointless in function, but they remain essential for many people’s survival, making it nearly impossible to dismiss them outright. It’s a reminder that the value of work often lies as much in its social and economic context as in its actual purpose.

Why Bullshit Jobs Often Go Unnoticed

Despite the widespread prevalence of bullshit jobs, many people fail to recognize or acknowledge their existence. Why? Part of the reason lies in the deeply ingrained belief that capitalism, with its emphasis on efficiency and productivity, couldn’t possibly produce such meaningless work. Admitting otherwise often means dismissing our own experiences—or those of friends and family—as mere anomalies.

This denial is reinforced by the way we talk about changes in employment. The narratives we’ve developed about work and economic shifts may feel convincing, but they’re often profoundly misleading. These explanations mask the reality of pointless jobs and instead frame them as necessary or inevitable.

Politically, the existence of bullshit jobs is remarkably convenient for those in power. A workforce occupied with meaningless tasks is less likely to question systemic issues or demand meaningful change. By keeping people busy, even with work of no real value, the system maintains a sense of order and control.

Ultimately, the failure to notice or address bullshit jobs reflects a mix of ideological blind spots and political convenience, allowing this phenomenon to persist largely unchallenged.

Why Work Feels Like Self-Sacrifice

As our economy shifts further toward the mere distribution of wealth, inefficiency and bloated hierarchies begin to make sense. These structures aren’t about productivity—they’re about absorbing as much wealth as possible. At the same time, the value of work has become less about what it produces or the benefits it provides to society. Instead, work is increasingly seen as valuable because of the self-sacrifice it demands.

This warped view of work creates a paradox: anything that makes a job less grueling—whether it’s meaningful impact or personal fulfillment—is seen as diminishing its value. And since lower-value work justifies lower pay, those in more rewarding or enjoyable roles often find themselves penalized financially.

Critics who argue that we’ve chosen consumerism over leisure aren’t entirely wrong, but they miss the underlying dynamic. It’s not simply a choice—it’s a cycle. We’ve created a culture where pain in the workplace becomes the moral justification for indulging in fleeting consumer pleasures. But as jobs consume more and more of our time, we lose the luxury of building meaningful lives outside work. This lack of “a life” leaves us with little more than those fleeting pleasures, reinforcing the cycle.

In this strange sadomasochistic loop, work and consumerism feed off each other, trapping us in a system where neither leisure nor fulfillment seems attainable.

---

Author: David Graeber

Publication date: 15 May 2018

Number of pages: 335 pages

---